Sanskrit Influence on the Indus Script

Author: Jeyakumar Ramasami
Email: info@indusscriptsdeciphered.com
Date: September 2025

Abstract

There is a conflicting opinion about the language of the Indus script. Some linguists believe it was based on the Indo-European language; another group claims it was based on the Dravidian language. My findings indicate that the Indus script was a composite language, comprising elements of the Indo-European (IE) language and Egyptian hieroglyphics. I refer to the influence of hieroglyphics as a Dravidian component. My decipherment effort so far reveals that many Indus symbols resemble Egyptian hieroglyphs, and there is a close connection between these two writing systems. The Egyptian priests and scribes likely contributed to the development of the Indus script, along with Iranian and Vedic priests. The Indus symbols show a composite culture of all three great civilisations. This paper argues for a moderate interpretation of Sanskrit influence within a hybrid cultural context.

Keywords: Indus script, Sanskrit, Dravidian, hieroglyphics, archaeology, Vedic culture.

Introduction

The debate regarding the language of the Indus script remains unresolved. Scholars have taken polarised positions, identifying either Indo-European or Dravidian as the root. This paper presents evidence that the script reflects a composite culture, influenced by Indo-European, Dravidian, and Egyptian traditions.

Literature Review

Iravatham Mahadevan proposed a reconciliatory view, suggesting that although the Indus scripts belong to the Dravidian language family, they can be better understood in the context of Vedic literature. He emphasised the limited nature of Aryan migration and the coexistence of cultural elements. (1) Rajesh Rao examined the statistical structure of Indus signs and concluded they share properties of linguistic systems, reinforcing the notion of meaningful communication. (2) In contrast, Farmer, Sproat, and Witzel denied that the Indus script constitutes a linguistic system at all. (3)

Research work of Iravatham Mahadevan

After years of interpreting Indus symbols based on Dravidian ideas, Mahadevan finally took a reconciliatory approach in 2014. He stated that, although the Indus scripts belong to the Dravidian language, they can be better understood through the evidence available in the Vedic literature. The Dravidian ideas had declined after the entry of Indo-European people into the Indus Valley, and the symbols of the Indus script cannot be read through the present-day Tamil language. Iravatham Mahadevan proposed interpreting the Indus script through Vedic literary evidence in his 2014 research paper. Mahadevan states that the incoming Aryans had not entirely wiped out the Dravidian ideas because the invaders were not in large numbers. They likely entered the Indian subcontinent in small groups over several years. It’s not a massive invasion. (1)

Mahadevan theorised that the Aryan-speaking people migrated into South Asia in the second millennium BC in the wake of the decline and the eventual collapse of the Indus Civilisation. By then, the Indus polity could have disintegrated into numerous smaller communities without effective central authority or leadership. The incoming Aryans were in much smaller numbers but could achieve elite dominance over the local population due to their better mobility and advanced weaponry. (1)

Mahadevan suggests that some segments of the Indus population, unwilling to be assimilated into the new social order, might have migrated eastward and southward. However, most people would have stayed back in the Indus Valley itself. Over time, the local population would have transitioned to the dominant Aryan dialect. Thus, the Indo-Aryan society was born, speaking the Indo-Aryan language but retaining much of the Pre-Aryan Dravidian cultural elements in religious practices, agriculture, craft traditions, and social institutions. (1)

Mahadevan suggests that it is crucial to recognise the Vedic and the earliest Tamil cultures as two distinct parallels, which flourished in regions and at times far removed from each other, with no possibility of mutual influence. Any common feature between the Vedic and Old Tamil can only be traced to their common descent from the same source, namely, the Indus Civilisation. I fully agree with the view suggested by Mahadevan; it is a moderate view and reasonably explains the Aryan and Dravidian conflict issue. (1)

Cypher-war

In 2009, Rajesh Rao published a study examining the sequential structure of the Indus script, specifically the likelihood that particular symbols follow or precede other signs. In most linguistic systems, words or symbols follow each other semi-predictably. There are specific dictating sentence structures, but also a fair amount of flexibility. Researchers refer to this semi-predictability as “conditional entropy.” Rajesh Rao and his colleagues calculated the likelihood of one symbol following another in an intentional order. (2)

They compared the conditional entropy of the Indus script to that of known linguistic systems, such as Vedic Sanskrit, and known non-linguistic systems, including human DNA sequences. They found that the Indus script was much more similar to the linguistic systems of the time. Rao states that it is not proof that the symbols are encoding a language, but it is additional evidence that these symbols are not just random contact and the pairing of arbitrary signs. Rao further states that the Indus script follows patterns consistent with the characters coding a language”. (2) But not everyone agrees that the script is a language. In 2004, a paper by Steve Farmer, Richard Sproat, and Michael Witzel claimed that the Indus script was not a language. (3)

Another challenge to the script’s decipherment is a classic one: expenses needed for the research work – money. Wells believes that until universities and funding agencies make a concerted effort to foster the study of the Indus script, little headway will be made. “It has to be a cooperative effort, it has to be funded, and it has to have a home,” says Wells. (4) Bryan Wells has accurately pointed out the problem with Indus script research. It is not because of intellectual deficiency on the part of Indians that the Indus script remains undeciphered. However, this is due to a lack of funding for this research. If enough funds are made available to some research group, this Indus code can be easily broken. However, unfortunately, the Indian government has shown little interest in deciphering the Indus script.

The Indus script had remained undeciphered for a long time. There are some valid reasons for that. The Indus Valley civilisation flourished a long time ago, approximately 4000 years ago. The time gap is enormous, and modern-day people cannot visualise the context in which these seals were prepared and what is written over them. The earliest Indus archaeologists made the fundamental mistake of identifying these excavation sites as “Megapolises“, whereas, in reality, they were “Necropolises”. This basic mistake made it challenging to determine and recognise the role of seals and their inscriptions. (5)

The Indus seals show characteristics of the priestly way of writing. The words were written in such a way that an ordinary person would not understand them, but another priest could read the inscription. This way of writing could have granted priests extraordinary powers, and they could have claimed that the words possessed magical and supernatural properties. The purpose of the seals appears to be related to magic, mysticism, and animal sacrifice.

Absence of the Rosetta Stone

The Indus seal inscriptions have many decipherments, some based on the Dravidian language and others on the Aryan language. But none of the decipherers could prove anything convincingly because there is no reference point. The ancient Egyptian hieroglyphic code was broken using the trilingual inscription on the Rosetta Stone. However, no such bilingual records are available for the Indus scripts to date. After working on this issue for many years, I found that the Indus script follows the Egyptian hieroglyphic writing style, and many symbols are common to both scripts. So, the ‘requirement of Rosetta stone’ argument is no longer applicable.

The lack of a bilingual text is not an insurmountable obstacle; some scripts have been deciphered without them. Ugarit script writings were found in Syria (in 1929). Several words were only a single letter long, suggesting the Ugarit script used a consonantal alphabet written without vowels (as was the case with other early Semitic alphabets such as Hebrew). Applying letter frequency analysis to the problem, Hans Bauer tentatively assigned values to two Ugaritic script letters that were commonly used in the language. Bauer then used the assignments to search the texts for the expected Semitic word for “king”. Proceeding along these lines, he found the words for “son” and the name of the god “Baal”, eventually determining the values of several other letters. My experience with the Indus script is also similar. (6)

Methodology

This research work is based on positional analysis and frequency analysis of symbols used by Iravatham Mahadevan. The approach adopted here involves comparative symbol analysis, drawing parallels between Indus symbols, Egyptian hieroglyphs, and Vedic ritual terminology. By aligning pictorial inscriptions with known religious and cultural practices, I propose readings that reveal a composite language involving both Dravidian and Sanskrit linguistic influence.

Findings

1. Common Symbols: For instance, the fish symbol (Matsya) stands for both a phonetic value and an ideographic value. The Kavu symbol denotes sacrifice. These two symbols together form the basic foundation of the Indus script. These symbols demonstrate the influence of both the Dravidian language and Sanskrit.
2. Ritual Significance: Many seals point to Pithru Karma rituals and sacrificial ceremonies resembling Kerala’s Karkida Vavu. These connect Indus practices with later Vedic traditions.
3. Ideo-graphic Writing: Indus seals exhibit an ideographic way of writing. However, a few cases of syllabic writing are also seen. The word Karma is presented in a logo-syllabic form, with phonetic elements traceable to Sanskrit.
4. Vedic Influence: Terms such as Mams-Astaka and Jyotir-stoma Yajna appear in inscriptions, suggesting direct influence from Vedic ritual vocabulary.

Commonly used symbols are identified.

The first symbol I recognised was the “fish” symbol [ ] (Matsya), which stood for the “Ma” sound, as well as the concept of the “dead man’s soul” (Pithru/Manes/ancestor). (7) The second symbol identified was the ‘Kavu’ symbol , representing the idea of ‘Sacrifice.’ (8) These two symbols were the most frequently used symbols of the Indus script. Identifying these two symbols gave me a breakthrough, and my experience was similar to that of Hans Bauer.

The direction of reading the inscriptions

Another major problem in reading the Indus inscriptions is the direction from which the inscription should be read. There are many ways of writing: left to right, right to left, or the Boustrophedon way. While reading the Indus inscription, the reading should start from the side the animal faces. This way of writing was the primary convention of the Egyptian hieroglyphic writers; Indus scribes meticulously followed the same. This feature shows the influence of ancient Egyptian civilisation on the Indus civilisation. (9)

Indus inscriptions are written in an ‘Ideogram’ (Idea)

Decipherment efforts show that the Indus inscriptions are written mainly in the ‘Ideogram‘ way. However, a few cases of the ‘logo syllabic way of writing also exist. A notable example is the word ‘Pithru-Karma’, which is frequently used in Indus inscriptions. This word is written in an ‘ideographic way’ and ‘logo-syllabic way’. Iravatham Mahadevan first advocated the ‘ideographic way’ of interpreting Indus Valley civilisation symbols in 2014. (1) However, his idea that those symbols communicated trade transactions of the Dravidian people has not progressed much.

Sacrifice to satisfy the souls of Pithrus (Ancestors)

Figure SEQ Figure \* ARABIC 30: Inscription showing the words ‘Pithru Karma’

Figure Inscription showing the word “Pithru Karma”.

The majority of the seals are oriented towards the Pithru Karma ceremony. This finding substantiates my earlier theory that Indus excavation sites are burial grounds, not megapolises as popularly imagined.

Table 1 Pithru Karma

Ancestors (This symbol looks like an older man walking with a stick.)	Upraised Hands–symbol with a fish symbol inside (composite symbol)	Yajna symbol. It resembles the modern Hindi full-stop symbol.	Mountain	God with a stick
(Pithru)	Ka+ma = Karma	Yajna	Indicates “Kur”, the nether world	Messenger God with the stick as his weapon

The Mountain symbol represents the ‘Kur’, the nether world. (88) The outcome of the analysis is that the inscription reads as ‘Pithru–Karma–netherworld (Kur)– messenger god’. The ceremony was carried out to appease the God of death, and the sacrificial offerings were sent through the messenger god. (10) “Pithru–Karma” means the annual death ceremony (Thithi) during which rituals are carried out with Yajna. In modern days, “Fire sacrifices” are conducted with vegetarian sacrificial materials. However, it appears that an animal sacrifice was the primary component of the “Yajna” ceremony in ancient times. (11)

The upraised symbol indicates the dead person’s ‘Ka’ (soul). The fish symbol (ma) inside the ‘ka’ symbol becomes a composite symbol with the syllable sound of ‘Karma.’ (12) One crucial point to note here is that the word ‘Karma’ is written in the Sanskrit language, not a Dravidian language. The ‘Ma’ sound in the word ‘karma’ is given by the Sanskrit word ‘Matsya’ to the fish symbol. If it had been a Dravidian word, it would have become ‘Karmee’, which has no meaning. (The fish is called ‘Meen’ in the Dravidian language). This pictogram is the best example supporting my ‘Sanskrit theory’. This pictogram has been written in a logo-syllabic way.

Ritual recorded in the seal – Karkida Vavu

Karkida, the last month of the Malayalam calendar, which corresponds to July and August, has some religious significance for Hindus. Karkidaka Vavu Bali, also known as Bali, is a sacrificial ritual performed in memory of the departed ancestors. On the day of vavu or Amavasya (new moon day), people belonging to the Hindu religion gather on the riverbanks and beaches to offer ‘Bali’. Bali means “sacrifice”; in the olden days, blood sacrifices would have been carried out, but nowadays, no blood sacrifices are performed; only vegetable materials are placed as offerings to the gods. People believe that the departed souls attain `moksha (liberation) if the ritualistic homage is performed on Karkidaka vavu. (13)

Men, women and children offer Bali to their ancestors. Thousands of people throng the beach on that day. Other ingredients of the Pooja are cooked rice, water, etc. Before commencing the ritual, all these materials are placed on a banana leaf. Men wear only a dhoti during the ceremony, and the offerings are made on a banana leaf, which will be finally immersed in the seawater. (13)

Importance of Karkida Vavu Bali

Hindu customs place great importance on rituals to be performed after death. According to Hindu custom, when a family member dies, the younger ones must perform Bali (also known as Pithru Tharpanam) to liberate the soul from the shackles of this worldly life, thereby helping the soul achieve eternal peace. The Bali carried out on Karkidaka Vavu day is called Vavu Bali, which is greatly important. The regular custom is to perform the ritual based on the calculations of the star of the day when a family member has passed away. However, Karkidaka Vavu Bali is performed regardless of these calculations. The rites are conducted according to Hindu custom and performed on the beaches and waterways. (13)

Pazu – Karkida – Dvikavu

The two seals given above are similar in one way. Although the pictures depicted are different, the inscriptions remain the same. These inscriptions may look different, but if they are properly analysed, it can be seen that both inscriptions are variations of the same.

The only difference between these inscriptions is that the Man’s logo appears at the end of the seal inscription(A). The same symbol of “Man” appears at the beginning of the inscription on the seal (B). The conclusion is that the subject matter of the inscriptions is the same in both seals; the positional change of the “Man” logo does not alter the meaning of the inscription.

More information has been obtained during the analysis process. The third logo in the seal (A) is not visible. But, considering the repetition of the same logos and sequence of logos, it can be assumed that the missing logo is ‘dvi-Kavu’ . The logo of the “Man” appears to represent a person who was sacrificed. The sacrificial animals, as well as men, were called “Pazu“. If the word “Pazu” is adapted for the logo “Man”, it makes sense. Adding the word “Pazu” at the beginning of the end does not affect the sentence’s meaning.

Analysis table for the inscription in the seal (A)

1	2	3	4	5	6
man	crab	crab	‘Kavu’ symbol with the number two symbol inserted in between	fish	Kavu-symbol
Man sacrificed	Both these crab symbols (symbols 2 and 3) should be read together as ‘Karkida ritual.	Both these crab symbols (symbols 2 and 3) should be read together as ‘Karkida ritual.	Dvi-Kavu means it is a sacrifice for two entities: the gods and the Pithrus.	‘Matsya’ indicates the Pithru.	‘Kavu’ in the Tamil language means ’sacrifice.’

The resulting sentence is “Pazu-Karkida-Dvikavu-Pithru-sacrifice.” This sentence refers to a ceremony similar to Kerala’s “Karkida Vavu,” as described above. This ceremony is devoted explicitly to pleasing “Pithrus”(ancestors). The conclusion is that the ceremony mentioned on the above-mentioned Indus seal is the same as the “Pithru Ceremonies” followed throughout India. However, the specific name of the ceremony, ‘Karkida-Kavu,’ is still used only in Kerala.

Analysis table for the inscription in the seal (B)

1	2	3	4	5	6
crab	The Crab symbol with a stick symbol across gives the ‘da’ sound here	Kavu- symbol	fish	Kavu	man
Karkida ritual. These symbols (symbols 1 and 2) should be read together as Karkida.	Karkida ritual. These symbols (symbols 1 and 2) should be read together as Karkida.	Kavu – may be single Kavu (Or) double Kavu	The fish symbol means ‘Pithru/manes/ ancestor’ here. (85)	Kavu	Man sacrificed

It could be read as ‘Karkida –Kavu –Pithru–Kavu –Pazu’. The word Karkida may refer to a ritual similar to the ‘Karkida Vavu’ of Kerala, which is dedicated to appeasing the ‘Pithrus’ (ancestors). The first two graphemes should be read together as ‘Karkida’, indicating ‘Karkida ritual’. Finally, the meaning is the same as in the above-given seal A. The only difference is that the ‘Danda’ (Stick) symbol has been introduced in this inscription. The stick symbol clarifies the word as ‘Karkida’. The term ‘Danda’ is another example of how the Sanskrit language was used in the Indus Valley period.

The term ‘Karkida Kavu’ has been transformed into ‘Karkida Vavu’ in present-day Kerala. This transformation may have occurred primarily after the introduction of the Buddhist concept of ‘Non-violence’ and a general aversion towards animal sacrifice. It looks like those Hindu priests had stopped the animal sacrifice but continued with the ritual to please Pithrus (ancestors).

Mams-Astaka

The best example of the ‘Vedic ritual’ in the Indus inscription comes from the word ‘Astaka’. This term is frequently used in many Indus inscriptions and is employed in various permutations and combinations. The word ‘Mams’ means ‘meat’ in Sanskrit. The word ‘mAMsASTakA’ means the forenoon of the 8th day in the dark half of the month Māgha; on that day, meat or flesh was offered to deceased ancestors. (14)

Figure Inscription showing the symbol of “Leaf-messenger”.

1	2	3	4	5	6	7
Grihapatya Yajna	Yajna	Karkida	Matsya	Matsya	Messenger	Kavu means sacrifice in Tamil
householder’s fire	Yajna	Karkida month ritual/sacrifice	Fish with horns indicates the second-generation Pithru	Fish with a dot show first-generation Pithru	Leaf messenger	The sacrifice of a bull was made

This is a ‘Vedic ritual’ and shows the influence of ‘Vedic culture’ in the Indus Valley civilisation. The inscription reads, “Grihapatya–Yajna–Karkida month–leaf messenger–Kavu”. The sentence means,” Householder’s Yajna was performed in the Karkida month for two generations of Pithru, and a leaf messenger was employed to carry the sacrificed items to the gods. Two consecutive symbols of ‘fish’ stand for two generations of Pithrus. The leaf symbol indicates the ‘leaf-messenger’, discussed in the following paragraph.

Leaf-messenger symbolism

The figure beside indicates a god or man carrying a stick and in a walking position. He is also shaped like a Pipal (or Betel) leaf. It could be a god or an ordinary man. All the Indus seal inscription symbols can be easily interpreted in terms of the Vedic rituals mentioned in the “Grihya-Sutra.” Reading the Grihya-Sutra suggests that the Vedic people employed such a messenger to convey their sacrifices to the gods or Pithrus (Manes). (15)

Agni-stoma / Jyotir-stoma Yajna — for uplifting the dead man’s soul to heaven

The above two graphemes are very peculiar and difficult to explain. At least the symbol of the ladder is easy to identify. However, the second symbol is formidable to ascertain. Fortunately, the more challenging aspect is to interpret the best and most precise information that emerges from such a grapheme. These graphemes indicate the idea of ‘raising the dead man’s soul to heaven. The ‘ladder’ symbolises the ascending pathway to heaven. Wherever such an ‘ideogram’ appears in Indus inscriptions, such an ideogram gives the meaning of ‘Jyotir stoma Yajna’. (16) This Yajna, performed to uplift the soul, is typical of ‘Vedic civilisation’. These Vedic ideas expressed in ‘Indus seal inscriptions’ support my ‘Sanskrit language theory’.

Discussion

The evidence highlights a multi-layered script, reflecting religious rituals and ancestor worship, rather than trade or administration. Sanskrit elements, particularly in ritual terminology, strongly suggest Indo-European contributions. This does not negate Dravidian or Egyptian influences but instead positions the Indus script as a cultural synthesis.

Conclusion

The Indus script reflects a composite civilisation, synthesising Vedic, Dravidian, and Egyptian elements. The presence of Sanskrit ritual terms demonstrates Indo-European linguistic influence, offering a resolution to the Aryan-Dravidian debate. Rather than viewing civilisation through binaries, recognising its hybrid nature may provide a more accurate understanding of its legacy.

References

References

1. Mahadevan, Iravatham. Dravidian proof of the Indus script Via Rig Veda: A case study (Bulletin No.4). Chennai: Indus Research Centre, Roja Muthiah Research Library, 2014.

2. Rajesh.P.N.Rao, et al. [Online] 2009. https://homes.cs.washington.edu/~rao/ScienceIndus.pdf.

3. Farmer, Steve, Witzel, Michael and Richard Sproat. The collapse of the Indus script thesis: The myth of a literary Harappan civilisation. /www.safarmer.com/ Electronic journal of Vedic studies. [Online] 2009. http://www.safarmer.com/fsw2.pdf.

4. Bryan.K.Wells. Archaeology: A different take on Indus evidence. www.nature.com/nature/journal/. [Online] 2016. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v532/n7599/full/532313e.html.

5. Jeyakumar(Necropolis). Necropolis theory on the Indus Valley Civilisation. Academia.edu. [Online] 2009. https://www.academia.edu/12673473/Necropolis_theory_on_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

6. Hans Bauer. Straightdope.com. [Online] https://www.straightdope.com/21343350/how-come-we-can-t-decipher-the-indus-script.

7. Jeyakumar, R. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19550772/Fish_symbolism_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

8. —. [Online] 2014. https://www.academia.edu/8612715/Kavu_symbol_indicates_sacrifice_in_Indus_inscriptions.

9. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/43722883/Egyptian_hieroglyphics_influence_on_Indus_script.

10. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19142411/Mountain_symbol_indicates_the_land_of_the_dead_nether_world_.

11. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/40491244/Tilak_symbol_indicates_pithru_karma_ceremony.

12. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/50838749/Dictionary_of_Indus_script_symbols_as_per_Jeyakumar.

13. Keralatourism.org. [Online] https://www.keralatourism.org/event/karkidaka-vavu-bali/64/.

14. Jeyakumar.R. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/11715645/Astaka_symbols_indicates_the_Mams_Astaka_ritual_in_Indus_script.

15. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19742902/Leaf_messenger_symbolism_in_Indus_script.

16. —. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/10969959/Agnistoma_and_Jyotistoma_Yajna_for_uplifting_the_dead_mans_soul_to_heaven.

 

IVC – “Ankh” symbol means “life”

Abstract

Many important symbols of IVC are derived from ancient Egyptian civilisation. Hence, I naturally expected the important ankh symbol to be in modified form in the Indus script. The Ankh symbol is present in IVC, but in a confusing form.

Figure 1Arrow symbol variants as per Mahadevan

The arrow symbol variants are as per Mahadevan. He grouped only two symbols under this category, whereas the classification of Mohenjo-daro.com groups many symbols under this category. These variants are as listed in the Indus script fonts file. Details are given below. These variants are from the book by Asko Parpola. (1)

Figure 2Arrow symbol variants as per Mohenjo-Daro.com.

The Ankh symbol represents life (immortality) and death. It can also represent zest, joy of life, and energy. The ancient Egyptians used the ankh to stand for a word that meant life. It is also called crux ansata, Latin for cross-with-a-handle. Like most religious or spiritual symbols, the Ankh Cross has no single, simple meaning.

The seal inscription beside it shows an ankh-like symbol that means life. The three symbols are read as follows: Kedaga (protection of life), Life (ankh symbol), ritual on Astaka day (Eighth day). One crucial point to be noted here is that the ankh symbol looks like a cross, not an arrow, whereas Mahadevan classifies everything into an arrow symbol. This classification of Mahadevan is leading to confusion.

The seal inscription reads like this: (Read from right to left.) It is the same message as in the earlier seal. Kedaga – Ankh (Life) – ritual on Astaka day. There is no god mentioned. Just “life” is mentioned.

The first two symbols read as follows(Read from left to right): Life (Ankh) – Sastha (Branch symbol). Only one god could give life in IVC: god “Heh”, the seventh day god. He is called “Ayyappan” in South India at present.

Mahadevan’s data mentions the seventh day god only once in a triplet. Data analysis shows that no specific god is aligned with this life-giving ankh symbol. The significant pairing frequency occurs with the Astaka symbol (Ritual on the eighth day). Details are given in the table below.

	This symbol pair occurs 19 times.	An arrow symbol follows this Astaka symbol. This Astaka symbol is also an arrow. However, there is a difference in the way it is drawn. It is more stylistic and ritualistic; it means the eighth day ritual. However, the second arrow is thin. The symbol provided by Mahadevan does not distinguish the ankh symbols shown in seals. The symbols provided by the National Fund for Mohenjo-Daro differentiate variants of this arrow symbol. (see the variants supplied at the top of this article). This data from Mahadevan is not reliable. It does not explain the symbol’s meaning properly.
	This pair occurs 4 times.	This symbol pair reads as “Ankh Sastha”. Ankh Sastha is the god “Heh”. This combination is logical and meaningful.

The second arrow shown by Mahadevan is not correct. The second arrow symbol has a distinct loop on the top of the arrow, like an ankh symbol. Mahadevan has not classified this ankh symbol as a separate symbol. (2) He has omitted the ankh symbol and taken it as an arrow symbol. Hence, the frequency data that Mahadevan provided is unreliable for this ankh symbol. Based on the above discussion, it can be concluded that the Ankh symbol was present in IVC, with the same meaning as that of the Egyptian hieroglyphic meaning. The god who gave everlasting life in IVC was god “Heh”, he is still being worshipped in the name of “Ayyappan” in South India. (3)

References

1. Parpola, Asko (a). Deciphering the Indus script. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2000.

2. RMRL, Mahadevan. [Online] Mahadevan, Iravatham & Roja Muthiah Research Library (2021), The Indus Script Web Application(IM77/IDF80). https://indusscript.in.

3. Jeyakumar(Ayyappan). [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/31640471/Ayyappan_and_Ayyanar_the_difference_is_explained?email_work_card=reading-history.

Another evidence for the funeral seals theory is number 24.

The IVC seal indicates many numbers but is restricted to number eight; a few examples of numbers twelve are also seen. I have been telling you for a long time that these seals were prepared during rituals related to death ceremonies. Various dates relate to various ceremonies conducted over 24 days. For more information, read my article, “Indus numerals indicate various gods per calendar days”. Now, I have another evidence to support my theory. See the seal below:

In Hinduism, the mourning period following a death typically lasts 10 to 30 days. While the provided search results do not specifically mention the 24th day, they highlight the significance of rituals and mourning practices during this period. The duration of the mourning period can vary depending on family traditions and beliefs. The 13-day mourning period is calculated from the time of death, suggesting that practices on the 24th would still be within the broader mourning timeline. These days are significant as the family is still grieving and performing rituals for the deceased.

There are 24 strokes in this seal, marking 24 days. This seal was prepared 24 days after a person’s death, marking the end of the mourning period. Generally, the mourning period lasts for 30 days for Hindus. It was the same for IVC people. In ancient Egypt, the mourning period was 40 days because mummification required 40 days; hence, this was lengthy.

This seal conclusively proves that the IVC seals were prepared during various rituals related to death and funeral ceremonies. Many of the decipherers are linking these numbers to trade transactions and measurements. This is the main reason for their failure over a hundred years. This fundamental flaw had to be corrected to decipher IVC seal inscriptions meaningfully.

In Hindu funeral practices, the 24th day is significant as it marks the completion of the initial mourning period and the beginning of a more public remembrance of the deceased. It follows the customary 13-day mourning period, during which the family observes specific rituals and restrictions. After the 24th day, the family may resume regular activities and prepare for longer-term memorials or memorial services.

The 24th day typically signifies the end of the more intense mourning period, where family members may have been fasting, avoiding certain activities, and adhering to stricter rules. While the 13 days are primarily focused on the family’s internal grief and rituals, the

24th day and beyond often involve more public remembrance, such as a memorial service or a larger gathering to celebrate the deceased’s life.

The 24th day and subsequent days allow the family to gradually reintegrate into everyday life while still honouring the memory of the departed. Hindu funeral rituals, including the 24th-day observance, are ultimately designed to facilitate the soul’s journey toward moksha (liberation).

Tamil Nadu graffiti – rope and rod symbol indicates Varuna.

The figure above is from Gurumurthy’s book. (Page no 117). These symbols are from Thirukampuliyur, near Karur, and Kodumanal, near Tiruppur. Gurumurthy defines the above symbol as the chariot. However, my opinion differs. I feel it looks like the noose and rod symbol of Varuna.

The same symbol also appears in IVC symbols; however, the problem persists, and this symbol cannot be adequately defined. I have also suggested that this symbol, as a “double ovary,” thereby represents the goddess Meshkhenet. For more information, read my article, “Two Bricks Symbol Indicates the Egyptian Goddess Meshkhenet” (Reference: Chapter 46 of my book, Indus Symbols Dictionary). (1) However, this interpretation needs correction at this stage.

The graffiti from Thirukampuliyur (near Karur) and Kodumanal (near Tiruppur) depict the rope-and-rod symbol more clearly. Considering both of these figures together, the idea of the god Varuna suits the rod and rope symbols much better.

The above figure illustrates variants of the rod and rope symbol from the book of Gurumurthy, page no. 269.

Two uterus symbols.

The seal beside shows a symbol (marked by an arrow) resembling two bags attached to a pole. Rekha Rao proposes that it could have indicated the offering made to the Vedic god Rudra, which was traditionally hung on a pole. (2) However, I have not found any reference to offering on a pole so far. Hence, it needs verification. It could indicate the two branches of the uterus symbol. Another possibility is that this symbol represents Varuna’s staff and noose.

The possibility that this symbol represents a noose and a stick is strong in this inscription. Read this symbol with other symbols in this seal inscription. This slanting lines symbol means ‘Dangerous’; the epithet of a ‘dangerous’ god is often associated with the gods Varuna and Kali. Additionally, the stick symbol is a sign of Varuna, as well as a symbol of an Agnoukaran ceremony. All these points indicate that the two loops symbol indicate Varuna only.

A variant of two bricks symbol

The above seal inscriptions display a single stroke within the oval circle, marked by the arrow. There is a possibility that it could be a modified version of two brick symbols. Here, only one brick is shown within the uterus symbol. The other possibility is that it could be the ‘noose and stick’ symbol of the god Varuna.

A variant of the two-uterus symbol.

The nearby seal inscription features a new symbol, characterised by a single stroke that separates two oval-shaped circles. This symbol could be a different version of the uterus symbol. (or) The other possibility is that of Vauna’s stick and noose symbol.

Another variant of the noose symbol.

The seal inscription presented nearby shows another type of two-brick symbol. Rekha Rao states it could be the Pinda offering made to Pithrus (Manes/ancestors). (2) I also held a similar view earlier. However, I think the time has come to revise that idea. This symbol requires reconsideration. Pinda is always offered in three lumps, meant for three generations of Pithrus, not in two chunks. Hence, the possibility of this symbol being a Pinda offering is less. It is probably a variation of the Uterus symbol, the two-brick symbol, or Varuna’s noose symbol.

References

1. Jeyakumar(Book). Indus symbols dictionary. s.l. : Pothi Publication -Online, 2022.
2. Rao., Rekha. Symbolography in Indus seals. Symbolography in Indus seals(e-Book).

s.l. : https://read.amazon.in/, 2015.

Tamil Nadu Graffiti – Arrow symbols indicate the god Rudra.

Figure 1Karkida symbols with arrows merged. Picture courtesy Rajan. (1)

The picture above shows the karkida symbols with arrow symbols. Karkida means crab. Karkida month is celebrated as the month of worship of ancestors in Kerala. Read the article for more information. God of karkida month is Rudra. Rudra’s arrows cause injury and death. Rudra was the most worshipped god in IVC. Read the article “Rudra was the most important god of the Indus Valley civilisation” for more information. (2)

Please observe the above symbols keenly. It can be seen that the arrow symbol is merged with the karkida symbol. This is quite logical because Rudra is the god associated with the rituals held in this month. Reference page no. 101, Book of Rajan. (1) The above picture is graffiti from the Hyderabad region.

Again, these ligatures are from the Hyderabad region, as mentioned in the same reference above. (1) These ligatures feature an arrow within the symbol of the sky, representing heaven. This arrow could have indicated the god Rudra in heaven. At the same time, there is a possibility that this arrow could be a hand symbol indicating Ka (soul), which is reaching heaven.

This ligature requires some more discussion. Gurumurthy says it resembles a face—see page 56 of Gurumurthy’s book. (3) But I beg to differ with his interpretation. In my opinion, it resembles an arrow in the sky. Or soul ascending to heaven. This shows the varied nature of interpretations. The interpretation depends on the idea of individual persons’ minds. However, these graffiti marks should be interpreted in the context of the place where the artifacts were found. These pot graffiti are from funeral pots. Hence, something related to death and heaven is a reasonably expected idea from such markings.

The symbols mentioned above are from the Kodumanal, as referenced from the book of rajan. (1) All these symbols indicate the arrows and bow and arrows. This symbol, featuring a bow and arrow, is the trademark of the god Rudra. This suggests that the ancient Hindu deity Rudra was worshipped in the Hyderabad region in ancient times. Now, we have to verify the status of Rudra in ancient Tamil Nadu.

These arrow symbols are from kodumanal pottery graffiti.

It shows that God Rudra was also present in Kodumanal, Erode district.

The graffiti above is from Kodumanal, as referenced on page 129 of the book by Rajan. The symbol referenced under number 54.1 depicts a sacrificial pot with an arrow inside. It means that the blood sacrifice was done to please the god Rudra. The symbol referenced under number 54.2 depicts an arrow symbol positioned beneath the sky symbol. The sky symbol indicates heaven. This conclusively shows that the god Rudra was also present in ancient Tamil Nadu.

Although the arrow symbols are visible in Kodumanal graffiti, they are not as prevalent as in the IVC symbol. Likely, Rudra was not the top god of the ancient Tamil people; only the mountain god Varuna, associated with Geb, was a significant deity among the Tamil people. It again confirms the limited influence of Vedic ideas in Tamil country.

References

1. Rajan., K. Thonmai Tamizh Iyal (in Tamil). Chennai : International Institute of Tamil Studies., 2018.

2. Jeyakumar(Rudra). Rudra was the most important god of the Indus Valley Civilization. www.academia.edu. [Online] https://www.academia.edu/43654003/Rudra_was_the_most_important_god_of_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

3. Gurumurthy .S. Deciphering the Inus script. Chennai. : University of Madras, Chennai., 1999.