Fish and honeycomb symbol – combined form

Figure 1: Honeycomb symbol in association with ‘fish symbol’.

Seal Picture courtesy – (1)

The above-given seal inscription shows a strong linkage between the fish symbol and the honeycomb symbol. The honeycomb symbol is drawn over the parenthesis sign itself, indicating the dead man’s soul has been transformed into ‘Bee’. The bee symbol is also present in the same inscription. Refer to my article,’ Fish symbolism’ and ‘Bee another form of resurrected man’s soul’ for more information. (2) (3)

Bibliography

1. Sullivan, Sue. Indus Script Dictionary. s.l. : Suzanne Redalia, 2011.

2. Jeyakumar(Fish-symbolism). Fish_symbolism_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization. academia.edu. [Online] December 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19550772/Fish_symbolism_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

3. Jeyakumar(Bee). Bee_was_another_form_of_dead_mans_resurrected_soul. academia.edu. [Online] 2016. https://www.academia.edu/23483592/Bee_was_another_form_of_dead_mans_resurrected_soul.

4. Jeyakumar(Smasana-cayana). Evidence_of_Smasana-cayana_Vedic_burial_ritual_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization. academia.edu. [Online] December 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19514513/Evidence_of_Smasana-cayana_Vedic_burial_ritual_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

‘Brick symbol’ indicates ‘iSTIkRta’ ceremony:

Abstract

The ‘Brick symbol’ gives an excellent insight into the development of the ‘Indus script’. The symbol ‘iSTika’ does not merely mean brick alone; it stands for a whole concept and the word ‘Istikrta ceremony’.

Earlier, I was under the impression that this symbol could represent ‘Weighing stone’, indicating ‘weighing of the heart ceremony. But, this symbol occurs so frequently in the Kabul manuscript that there must be another meaning. The practice narrated for the Agnicayana ceremony by Jithesh et al. shows that the ‘Istika’ ceremony occurs five times during 12 days of the ritual. Considering the high frequency of this ceremony in the Kabul manuscript and in practice, it is concluded that this symbol indicates the ‘Istika’ ceremony.

This symbol looks like three bricks are stacked together, and the offering is made over it. (Or) It looks like a wooden frame used for brick making with a handle. There are two types of bricks; one is the modern type of brick, which is a standard size. The above-given seal picture gives the approximate size of the brick. Whereas the second type of brick is shown in the seal picture given below:

This wooden frame is different, and it indicates an oversized brick. The bricks used in Yajna are different; they are not of the size used in modern-day house construction. See the picture given below.

Bricks used in Vedic Yajna altar construction

Picture courtesy (1)

Tools used in Vedic Yajna

Image courtesy (2)

The red arrow shows a box-like tool used as a ladle for offering sacrifice materials on the fire. This ladle also resembles the ‘istika’ symbol shown in the seal inscription. I do not know the specific Sanskrit name of this tool. The name of the device is yet to be ascertained. It is likely that during Istika ceremonies, such ladles could have been used (or) It may be a tool through which offerings are made to ‘Ishta Devatas’ in the Yajna ceremony. In fact, I have seen in one Vedic Yajna ceremony, the priest made a cloth bundle of the sacrifice materials and placed the package on this box ladle and offered into the fire. This sacrifice was made at the last concluding part of the ceremony. The offering materials are not simply thrown into the fire; it has to be reverently placed in such ladles before offering them to the fire.

Whatever this ladle’s name, the box ladle looks akin to the grapheme shown in the Indus seal inscription. Further verifications are required on this issue. Till then, it is assumed that this box ladle is somehow connected with the word ‘Istika’.

Istika in Yajur Veda (3)

The article written by Sulaiman Razvi gives a good idea about the ‘Ishtika’ ceremony. Yajur Veda 13.26 states that "You are Ashadha (Brick), Conquering One". The word Ashadha or Ishtika is translated as brick, and earth or speech by some. (3)

The Satapatha Brahmana briefly mentions ‘Ashadha’:

Satapatha Brahmana 7.4.2.32-33. He then lays down the Ashadha (invincible brick)–the ‘invincible one’ being this earth; it is this earth he thus lays down. He puts it on the fore-part (of the altar-site), for this earth was created first. And as to its being called Ashadha. The gods and the Asuras, both of them sprung from Prajapati, strove together. The gods saw this invincible brick, even this earth; they put it on (the altar). And having put it on, they conquered (and drove) the Asuras, the enemies, the rivals, from this universe. And thereby they conquered (asahanta), it is called Ashadha. In like manner, the Sacrificer, after putting on that (brick), conquers (and drives) his spiteful rival from this universe (or, from everything here).

And there is one more verse from Brahmanas which a commentary of the Vedic verse is,

Satapatha Brahmana 7.4.2.39. ‘Thou art Ashadha, the conquering,’ for the gods thereby conquered the Asuras–’conquer the enemies! Conquer the hostile!’ as the text, so the meaning;–’ thou hast a thousand energies: do thou speed me!’ (3)

The above-given explanation of Razvi gives an excellent idea of the ‘Ishtika ceremony’. This statement explains the importance of the ‘brick ceremony’; basically, it provides the power to expel and defeat enemies.

(Pictures courtesy and acknowledgements Book of Sue Sullivan) (4)

Now, the inscription can be read as "Istikrta – sacrifice –protection for three generations of Pithrus- Grihapathya fire and sacrifice". As per Spoken Sanskrit dictionary (5), the word ‘Istikrta’ means ‘Particular Sacrifice’ or ‘Festive rite‘. There is a second possible meaning also. Before starting any sacrifice, the bricks are made fresh every time. At the date of initiation of ‘brick making’ itself, one bull is slaughtered. Such sacrifice animal is known as ‘Istikrta-pazu’. (5) However, both words indicate a single situation and could show a unique ceremony.

.

Picture courtesy – (4)

The inscription in this seal could be read as "Istikaka -sacrifice – Dhanudhar (Rudra/Karkinos)-sacrifice". The meaning of the words is "Istikrta ceremony for Dhanudhar". Dhanudhar most probably indicates ‘God Rudra/Karkinos’. God Karkinos’s name appears in an ideographic way in the Indus inscriptions. (6) (7)

Picture courtesy – (4)

The inscription on the seal can be read as ‘Istika’. The meaning of the word is "bull sacrificed on the occasion of istikrat ceremony". However, the word is so highly condensed, the only symbol of brick appears. It could have made good sense to Indus Valley priests because their vocabulary was limited to sacrifice and rituals. In contrast, modern man gets confused as we attribute various meanings to a simple word used by an Indus priest. This is the typical problem associated with the decipherment of the Indus script.

In his book, Asko Parpola states, "Logo-syllabic scripts are open systems; their signs may have several values and represent larger linguistic units with interrelationships that are not nearly so defined" (Chapter -7; first paragraph). (8) This statement explains the problem with Indus scripts decipherment efforts. There are many meanings for a single logo. At the same time, a logo represents a more powerful word than what it looks like. Sometimes, a single logo accounts for a significant concept itself. This Indus script word ‘Istikrta’ is the best example in this regard.

1. Jithesh. photos/athirathram/. www.flickr.com. [Online] 2016. https://www.flickr.com/photos/athirathram/.

2. http://www.welcomekeralaonline.com. vedic-ritual-sagnikam-athirathram. http://www.welcomekeralaonline.com. [Online] http://www.welcomekeralaonline.com/article/vedic-ritual-sagnikam-athirathram.

3. Razvi, Sulaiman. response-to-women-in-hinduismvedas-part-i/. Truthabouthinduism.wordpress.com/. [Online] june 2016. https://truthabouthinduism.wordpress.com/2014/05/14/response-to-women-in-hinduismvedas-part-i/.

4. Sullivan, Sue. Indus Script Dictionary. s.l. : Suzanne Redalia, 2011.

5. spokensanskrit. http://spokensanskrit.de/. [Online]

6. Jeyakumar(Rudra). Bow_and_arrow_symbol_indicates_God_Rudra. www.academia.edu. [Online] May 2016. https://www.academia.edu/25699863/Bow_and_arrow_symbol_indicates_God_Rudra.

7. Jeyakumar(Karkinos). Bow_and_arrow_symbol_indicates_God_Karkinos. www.academia.edu. [Online] https://www.academia.edu/25699863/Bow_and_arrow_symbol_indicates_God_Karkinos.

8. Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus script. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Sa – symbol means protection

Abstract

The ‘Sa’ symbol meant protection in ancient Egypt and was associated with the goddess Taweret; it was a protective symbol. Taweret was associated with childbirth as well as facilitating the rebirth of a soul. One Indus script symbol is very similar to this ‘Sa’ symbol in form and meaning. Details are as given below.

The above given Sa- symbol of ancient Egypt is an ideogram conveying the idea of protection.

The above-given ideograms are ‘Sa’ symbols of Indus script adapted from the Egyptian idea.

Sa – symbol

The ‘Sa symbol’ was a protective symbol favoured by pregnant women and mothers to shield their young children against evil. The ‘Sa symbol’ was often depicted with images of the Bes, the dwarf god, Shed the protector god and Taweret, the ancient Egyptian hippopotamus goddess and a favourite deity of the common folk in ancient Egypt. The Sa symbol meant “protection of young life” and was often used as an amulet or good luck charm. (1)

The appearance of the Sa symbol

Various ideas have been offered as to the origin and appearance of the ‘Sa’ sign. Some thought it represented a rolled-up herdsman’s shelter or perhaps the papyrus life-preserver used by the Nile’s boatmen. The hieroglyph appears in two forms. In the Old Kingdom, the lower section of the hieroglyph was undivided, while in the Middle Kingdom, it was usually separated. (2)

Meaning of Sa symbol

The ‘Sa’ hieroglyph was a visual representation of the concept of “protection.” It was often used in amulets and jewellery in hopes of rendering its protective powers over the owner. The ‘Sa’ was often used in compositions featuring other hieroglyphs such as the ankh and djed signs. It was also found used on magic wands or batons during the Middle Kingdom. The ‘Sa’ was also associated with various deities such as Bes, Taweret and the lion when emphasizing their protective duties and natures. (2)

The above-given seal inscription shows the ‘Sa’ symbol occurs many times. This ‘Sa’ symbol occurs 54 times in Indus seal inscriptions as per data of Mahadevan and Sundar. This variant of the ‘Sa’ symbol occurs 11 times. The high frequency of 54 times shows the importance given to this ‘Sa’ symbol and ritual.

The above-given data shows that this ‘Sa’ symbol occurs in combination with the Taweret demon goddess symbol eleven times. This combination gives an idea, and this protection symbol was used to ward off evil forces. In addition to that, the ‘Sa’ symbol appears along with the ‘Kur’ symbol sixteen times. This combination gives the idea, the protection of the Taweret was necessary during the rebirth process of the soul in the ‘Kur’(the nether world). The above-given frequency analysis data is obtained from the work of Mahadevan (3) and Sundar. (4)

Similarly, the idea of warding off evil force is further substantiated by other symbol pair combinations. This sa symbol occurs with the ‘God Rudra’ and ‘Kur’ symbols.

The above-given seal inscription shows the Sa- kur symbol combination. Mountain (Kur) means netherworld a dangerous place; hence use of ‘Sa’ to ward off the evil forces of the underworld is logical here.

The above-given seal inscription shows the ‘Sa’ symbol followed by Rudra (God) symbol. Rudra is the god creating disease and death by his arrows. Naturally, Indus people tried to ward off Rudra using the ‘Sa’ protection symbol. However, the frequency of this combination is very low.

Acknowledgements

1. All pictures of Indus seals are taken from the book of sue Sullivan (5)

2. All logos are taken from the research papers of Iravatham Mahadevan, Asko Parpola (6) and Sundar (4)

Bibliography

1. landofpyramids.org. sa-symbol. www.landofpyramids.org. [Online] http://www.landofpyramids.org/sa-symbol.htm.

2. Eegyptianmyths.net. Protect.htm. www.egyptianmyths.net. [Online] http://www.egyptianmyths.net/protect.htm.

3. Mahadevan.I. The Indus script -Text, Concordance and Tables. http://www.rmrl.in. [Online] http://www.rmrl.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/papers/5a.pdf.

4. Sundar. -The-Indus-Script-Text-and-Context.pdf. http://45.113.136.87/wp-content/uploads/. [Online] http://45.113.136.87/wp-content/uploads/43-The-Indus-Script-Text-and-Context.pdf.

5. Sullivan, Sue,. Indus script dictionary. 2011.

6. Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus Script. New Delhi : Cambridge University Press, 2000.

Bird symbol indicates the same idea as that of ‘fish symbolism.’

Abstract

The bird symbol frequently appears in Indus seals. There are three possible explanations. The first is that the idea could be similar to the belief expressed in Sumerian civilization. The potential second idea is that of ancient Egyptian idea, which suggested the soul, the ‘ba’, could leave the dead body in the form of a bird. The third is that of later Rig Vedic ritual, where the firebird carries the dead man’s soul to heaven.

Figure 1: The above given Indus seal shows the bird logo.

The Sumerian belief says," The dead persons "live in darkness, eat clay, and are clothed like birds with wings" (1). The Greeks and Celts thought that the dead could reappear as birds. The Sumerians of the ancient Near East believed that the dead existed as birds in the underworld. According to Islamic tradition, all dead souls remain in the form of birds until Judgment Day (2).

The Flight of the Soul numerous myths have linked birds to the journeys undertaken by human souls after death. Sometimes a bird acts as a guide in the afterlife. In Syria, figures of eagles on tombs represent the guides that lead souls to heaven.

Figure 2: Bird appears along with crocodile figure.

Picture courtesy — (3)

It looks like that the Indus civilization concept is more or less in conformity with the Sumerian civilization belief of the soul becoming a bird. It seems like that the above-given seal (middle scene) reflects such an idea, where the dead are transformed into birds and travel through the river Styx in a boat in the nether land. The third scene depicts the fish eaten by a crocodile. Fish represents the dead man’s soul eaten by the crocodile means everlasting punishment in hell. Refer to my earlier papers on ‘fish symbolism’ and ‘crocodile indicates Egyptian goddess Ammit’ for more information on this idea. (4) (5)

Fish Symbolism – By – S. H. HOOKE

The fish was shown as a divine symbol during the Hellenistic period of Egyptian civilization. The fish appears in a tomb painting from Gamboud, Egypt. The mummy is lying on a lion bed and is gazing at a fish above him. Here the sacred fish replaces the usual ‘Ba’ bird symbol, indicating the hope of immortality. (6) (7)

Figure 3: figure showing ‘Ba’ in the form of a bird.

Picture courtesy – (8)

The possible second idea is that of ancient Egyptian belief. The ancient Egyptians believed that the soul, the ‘ba’, could leave the dead body in the form of a bird, often a hawk. They built their graves and tombs with narrow shafts leading to the open air so that these birds could fly in and out, keeping watch on the body.

Figure 4: The bird symbol indicates the dead man’s soul.

Picture courtesy — (3)

The above given Indus seal shows a ceremony associated with the bird. One significant thing to be noted here is that both fish and bird are bracketed together, specifying that these symbols suggest the same meaning. The conclusion is that both these symbols could indicate the release of a dead man’s soul in the form of a bird or fish.

Figure 5: seal inscription indicates the Vedic idea of a firebird carrying the soul to heaven.

Picture courtesy (3)

Bird symbol in Rig Vedic rituals

The third possibility is that the bird symbol could be indicating the Vedic idea of ‘firebird’ carrying the dead man’s soul into heaven. See the above-given seal and its inscription. The inscription should be read from right to left (The side which the bull is facing). The ‘Great bird’ symbol indicates the Agnicayana Yajna, and the second symbol (inverted cleft) indicates the ‘karkida ritual’.

Figure 6 Picture courtesy — (9)

The entire ritual of Agnicayana takes twelve days to perform, in the course of which a big bird-shaped altar, the uttaravedi "northern altar", is built out of 1005 bricks. The liturgical text is in chapters 20 to 25th of Krishna Yajurveda. The immediate purpose of the Agnicayana is to build up for the sacrificer an immortal body that is permanently beyond the reach of suffering and death. (9)

Hindu scriptures say that a man may become a Deva, beast, bird, vegetable, or stone according to his merit or demerit. The Upanishads also corroborate this statement. (10)

I have pointed out this similarity of bird symbol to that of Vedic Agnicayana ritual in my earlier article, "Evidence of Vedic Yajna in Indus seal Inscriptions" (11). The same idea has been expressed by Rekha Rao also in her book, "Symbolography in Indus seals" (12).

Acknowledgements:

All the Indus seals pictures are taken from the Book of Sue Sullivan.

1. Ancient-literature.com. Gilgamesh. Ancient-literature.com. [Online] March 2016. http://www.ancient-literature.com/other_gilgamesh.html.

2. mythencyclopedia.com. Birds-in-Mythology. mythencyclopedia.com. [Online] March 2016. http://www.mythencyclopedia.com/Be-Ca/Birds-in-Mythology.html.

3. Sullivan, Sue. Indus Script Dictionary. s.l. : Suzanne Redalia, 2011.

4. Jeyakumar(Fish-symbolism). Fish_symbolism_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization. academia.edu. [Online] December 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19550772/Fish_symbolism_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization.

5. jeyakumar(Crocodile). Crocodile_depiction_indicates_Egyptian_goddess_Ammit. academia.edu. [Online] March 2016. https://www.academia.edu/22868949/Crocodile_depiction_indicates_Egyptian_goddess_Ammit.

6. Hooke, S.H. http://www.luxlapis.co.za/astro/fish.htm. The Egyptian idea of a soul (9) (10). [Online] December 2015. http://www.luxlapis.co.za/astro/fish.htm.

7. Folklore– Fish Symbolism. Hooke, S.H. s.l. : Taylor and Francis Ltd., 1960, Vol. 72 no.3.

8. wikipedia(Egyptian-soul). Ancient_Egyptian_concept_of_the_soul. wikipedia. [Online] 2015. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_concept_of_the_soul#Ka_.28vital_spark.29.

9. wikipedia(Agnicayana). Agnicayana. wikipedia. [Online] March 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Agnicayana.

10. www.dlshq.org. afterdeath.htm. www.dlshq.org. [Online] March 2016. http://www.dlshq.org/download/afterdeath.htm.

11. jeyakumar(Agnicayana). Evidence_of_Vedic_Yajna_in_Indus_seal_Inscriptions. www.academia.edu. [Online] March 2016. https://www.academia.edu/10973385/Evidence_of_Vedic_Yajna_in_Indus_seal_Inscriptions.

12. Rekha. Symbolography in Indus seals. Symbolography in Indus seals(e-Book). s.l. : https://read.amazon.in/, 2015, p. 11736.

Dholavira signboard deciphered

Abstract

Generally, Indus inscriptions are short, containing only four or less than four symbols. However, this signboard of Dholavira is different; it has ten characters and is quite lengthy compared to inscriptions on seals of IVC. The place of finding an object in the archaeological site is vital to interpret the nature of an object. archaelogist claim that it is the name board of the citadel, but my opinion is different. It is an epitaph over a grave.

My interpretation is that "Dholavira" is a "burial place” (1) . Further, a skeleton was found in a sitting position near this "Dholavira sign Board" (as per the information given by the guide, not yet verified). All these points discussed on the page under “Necropolis theory" show that Dholavira was a kind of burial place, not a place for living people. Further, excavation below this signboard will reveal the possibility of finding a skeleton below that signboard. The signboard is nothing but an "epitaph". An epitaph is an inscription on a tombstone in memory of a dead person over his grave.

Defects in "Signboard” theory:

1) I have not seen any castle with a wooden signboard. If at all there was a signboard in that citadel, it would have been in stone engraving. Considering the need for durability and prestige attached to the signboard of a fortress.

2) If a shop occupied that site, the possibility of 10 feet long signboard is a difficult proposition.

3) It is doubtful if there was any kind of trace of wooden board available at the time of excavation, it looks like it was merely an assumption that there could have been a wooden board.

4) If the wooden signboard had fallen from a higher elevation, the board and inscriptions would likely shatter, and it will not remain intact. In this case, the letters have survived intact.

5) It is unlikely that any wooden engraving would have been studded with "gypsum". Generally, wooden carvings are studded with elephant tusks or different coloured wood. Gemstones are typically embedded only on white marble, like the Pietra dura work in the Taj Mahal.

6) Gypsum stone is cheap, not a semi-precious stone; it is merely a variant of "Plaster of Paris"(Alabaster), which is a common material.

Picture courtesy — (2)

7) See the above-given photo; the archaeologists claim that the Dholavira name board has fallen from a higher elevation to the ground. There is no evidence of a wooden plank rotting away (See the video, 32nd minute) (3). The video shows the spaces around letters are solidly filled with earth. No cavities are seen; any rotting wooden board would have left cavities in that place. The conclusion is that this epitaph has been written over a burial mound of a dead person. The gypsum stone inscription is merely embedded over the grave.

Picture courtesy – (3)

8) Further, the ground on which the inscriptions are written is protected by a surrounding wall, which gives an appearance of a mini water tank-like structure. (7’x3’ size)(See the above-given photo). Why the Dholavirans had built a wall around the fallen name board? What had fallen was not the name board, it was a Hero/King/priest who had fallen, and they had built a surrounding wall to protect his grave and the epitaph. If further excavation is carried out at this location, the dead man’s skeleton will appear below the inscription. The conclusion is that it is an "epitaph" over a grave, not a signboard.

The video gives the impression that the video was shot at the time of excavating the inscription. The video shows the presence of protective walls. Possibly, the protective barrier was built later after identifying the importance of inscription. This point needs further verification (3).

Considering all these above-said points, it can be concluded that the inscription indicates various ceremonies carried out to satisfy different gods and protect a dead person’s soul. The ‘name board theory’ is not sustainable.

Analysis table for the inscription:

(Read from right to left)

The reading of the inscription is that” Protection Yajna – two Garhapatya fires (That means the sacrifice was carried out for two gods) – (full stop) – Yajna – Smasana-cayana Yajna – Garhapatya sacrifice for messenger god and Garhapatya offer for God Indra (?).

The symbol ‘Mallet’ (Hammer) appears for the first time in Indus seal inscriptions. The hammer’s symbol could indicate the European god Thor (or) the Greek god Hephaestus‘. But considering the similarity between Thor and the Indian Vedic god Indra. Assigning the symbol of the hammer to the god Indra is more appropriate.

In Norse mythology, Thor is a hammer-wielding god associated with thunder, lightning, storms, oak trees, strength, humankind’s protection, healing, and fertility. (4) The same are the features of the god Indra in India. The presence of the symbol of ‘God Indra’ shows that this signboard was written in the last phase of IVC.

Two bangle symbol indicates the idea of seeking protection. Asko Parpola, in his book, ‘Deciphering the Indus script’ (5 p. 228), states that it suggests the idea of seeking protection. Most probably, protection was sought for the dead man’s soul.

The ‘Diamond shape’ symbol indicates the Smasana-cayana ritual. It is the final burial ritual carried out for a dead person. For more information, read my article titled ‘Evidence of ‘Smasana-cayana’ (Vedic burial) ritual in Indus Valley Civilization’. (6).

The leaflet of India’s Archaeology department about this site reveals seven different layers of settlement in this place. Indian archaeologists, lead by R.S.Bisht and others, are saying that it was under continuous habitation, whereas my opinion is that it was under continuous use as a "Grave Yard". This fact further confirms that this site has been continuously used for over 5000 years.

1. Jeyakumar(Necropolis-theory). Necropolis_theory_–Revised_version-19. www.academia.edu. [Online] 2015. https://www.academia.edu/12673473/Necropolis_theory_–Revised_version-19.

2. ancientindia.co.uk. /indus/story/. www.ancientindia.co.uk. [Online] June 2016. http://www.ancientindia.co.uk/indus/story/page08b2.html.

3. youtube.com. Indus valley. www.youtube.com. [Online] June 2016. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LTGC7-xN_XA.

4. wikipedia(Thor). Thor. wikipedia. [Online] June 2016. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thor.

5. Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus script. New York : Cambridge University Press, 2000.

6. Jeyakumar(Smasana-cayana). Evidence_of_Smasana-cayana_Vedic_burial_ritual_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization. academia.edu. [Online] December 2015. https://www.academia.edu/19514513/Evidence_of_Smasana-cayana_Vedic_burial_ritual_in_Indus_Valley_Civilization.