Tammuz as a milk carrier

Abstract

Tammuz was a Mesopotamian god, and it looks like the Indus Valley people had followed his cult. A symbol in the IVC script looks like a ‘water-carrier,’ similar to the Mesopotamian seal. Even though this cult has disappeared along with IVC, it is still being practised in South India in Tamil Nadu as a marriage ritual of goddess Meenakshi in the temple at Madurai city.

Figure 1: Sumerian seal depicting God Dumuzi.

The above-given seal impression from Mesopotamia shows a water carrier with skin bags hung across a yoke. The picture shows a god carrying Kavadi (Yoke). There are stars on either side of his head. (1) The above-given seal and references are from the book of Asko Parpola (page.no.183). (1)

Figure 2: God Dumuzi in line diagram.

Earlier, in my book (2), I explained that the seal refers to the star constellation ‘Aquarius’ and indicates some month and date. That explanation is valid to the extent that the seal indicates some festival, which falls on a particular month. (3). Now, I got additional information that the god represented in the seal; the god depicted in this figure-1& 2 is ‘Dumuzi’. The same Damuzi was later called Tammuz, and in European mythology, he was known as Adonis. (4). The other resurrected gods list includes Dionysus, Persephone, Osiris, Odin, Krishna, Quetzalcoatl and Attis.

Sumerian scholar Samuel Noah Kramer and folklorist Diane Wolkstein published a book in 1983 titled ‘Inanna, Queen of Heaven& Earth: Her Stories and Hymns from Sumer’. A previously unknown tale of Inanna’s courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi’ has been brought into the record in this book. In this tale, it is mentioned that the Inanna’s lover, the shepherd-king Dumuzi, brought a wedding gift of milk in pails, yoked across his shoulders. (5) (6)

Figure 3: IVC symbol showing God Tammuz.

The above discussion’s relevance is that the Indus symbol of ‘water carrier’ should be construed as indicating ‘God Tammuz’. The above-given story of ‘Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi’ shows that the god indicated by the IVC symbol is ‘Dumuzi.’

Figure 4: Marriage of Goddess Meenakshi to Shiva (the fair one) in the presence of God Vishnu (the dark one).

Picture courtesy: (7)

The marriage of ‘Inanna and Dumuzi’ is a festival of fertility cult. Even though the practice has disappeared in the Middle East a long time back, such a fertility cult still exists in Tamil Nadu, especially Madurai, located in the southern region of Tamil Nadu. The festival is known as ‘Marriage of goddess Meenakshi’.

Figure 5: Marriage of Meenakshi performed by five priests.

Picture courtesy: (8)

See, the above-given figure -5, the priests (three persons with a turban) perform the marriage rituals. Note that the turbans worn by these ‘Acting kings’ are similar to those worn by Sumerian gods. Such turbans are not used by any priests in any ritual in Tamil Nadu. It is a kind of isolated case.

Figure 6: Sumerian seal showing horned helmet of Gods

Picture courtesy: (9)

See the turban worn by Sumerian gods, a helmet made of horns indicating they are gods. The relevance of the discussion is that the turban of temple priests somewhat mimics the turban of ancient Sumerian gods.

Figure 7: Devotees acting as God Kallalagar (God Tammuz)’.

Picture courtesy: (10)

There is a peculiar practice of supply of water for drinking to the festival participants through leather bags. Note the persons in figure -7 who are carrying the leather water bags. They will supply water to pilgrims for drinking through the nozzle in that leather bag.

Relevance of the above-given discussion is that the festival of ‘marriage of Meenakshi’ is the remnant of ‘Inanna’s marriage’ and the ‘water carriers’ are re-enacting the act of supply of milk by Tammuz in the marriage of Inanna.

Statistical analysis of messenger god symbol

Even though Tammuz is depicted as a ‘milk carrier’ after his death, he acted as doorkeeper and messenger god to the underworld death goddess Ereshkigal. Hence, this symbol can be termed as the messenger god.

Messenger god	frequency	remarks
	126	Messenger god
	80	A variant of the messenger god
	13	A variant of the messenger god
	28	Messenger-sastha (god) (branch means sastha = god) (11)
	26	Offering to the messenger god (comb symbol means -offering) (11)
	18	Number three means many gods/dangerous god— The offering to many gods was sent through the messenger god (11)
	12	Agnoukaran ceremony – the stick was sent through the messenger god (12)
	11	Messenger god and gatekeeper god
	27	Messenger god – ploughing ceremony – the offering was sent through messenger god. (13)

The data is extracted from the research papers of Mahadevan and Sundar et al. The data shows a harmonious relationship with other symbols if the meaning of ‘messenger -god’ was used.

The other messenger was the ‘leaf-messenger’ symbol, for which a separate article has been written. Refer to the article ‘leaf-messenger’ for more information. There was also a third messenger god symbolism, god with a curved boot, equivalent of ‘flying sandal’. God with flying sandals was the Greek messenger god ‘Hermes’.

————————————————————————————

1. Parpola, Asko. Deciphering the Indus Script. New Delhi. : Cambridge University Press., 2000.

2. Jeyakumar(Book). New interpretations on Indus Valley civilization. Chennai : Allright Publications, 2009.

3. Jeyakumar(Kavadi). https://sites.google.com/site/induscivilizationsite/home/kavadi–water–carrier. https://sites.google.com/site/induscivilizationsite/home/kavadi–water–carrier. [Online] july 2015. https://sites.google.com/site/induscivilizationsite/home/kavadi–water–carrier.

4. listverse.com. resurrected-religious-figures/. http://listverse.com. [Online] july 2015. http://listverse.com/2013/03/30/10-resurrected-religious-figures/.

5. Kramer, Diane Wolkstein and Samuel Noah. Inanna,Queen of heaven& Earth: Her stories and Hymns from Sumer. New York : Harper Colophon, 1983.

6. Wikipedia(Tammuz). Tammuz_(deity). https://en.wikipedia.org. [Online] july 2015. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tammuz_(deity).

7. Ram. youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com. [Online] july 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CKE3-xjOiuM.

8. Suryan TV. youtube.com. https://www.youtube.com/. [Online] july 2015. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tIw3knkGjUw.

9. Reinhold, Walter. Serpentningishzida. http://www.bibleorigins.net. [Online] july 2015. http://www.bibleorigins.net/Serpentningishzida.html.

10. timescontent.com. devotees-dressed-as-lord-kallalagar. http://www.timescontent.com/syndication-photos/reprint/feature/316202/devotees-dressed-as-lord-kallalagar.html. [Online] july 2015. http://www.timescontent.com/syndication-photos/reprint/feature/316202/devotees-dressed-as-lord-kallalagar.html.

11. jeyakumar(number-three). Number three specifies Many gods and also Dangerous gods. Academia.edu. [Online] https://www.academia.edu/41294661/Number_three_specifies_Many_gods_and_also_Dangerous_gods..

12. Jeyakumar(stick-symbol). Single vertical stroke symbol could be indicating Agnoukaran Shradda ceremony. Academia.edu. [Online] july 2020. https://www.academia.edu/43552080/Single_vertical_stroke_symbol_could_be_indicating_Agnoukaran_Shradda_ceremony_ver_6_july.

13. Jeyakumar(hoe). Hoe symbol shows sowing of seeds ritual of Smasana-Cayana ceremony. www.academia.edu. [Online] 2018. https://www.academia.edu/26648236/Hoe_symbol_shows_sowing_of_seeds_ritual_of_Smasana_Cayana_ceremony.

Double bow and double arrow indicate Goddess Neith

Abstract

The single arrow indicates the arrow of God Rudra, which caused disease and death. Whereas the Indus seal inscriptions also show double arrows and double shield, indicating Egyptian goddess Neith. The arrows of Neith conveyed the directly opposite idea of arrows of Rudra. Arrows of Neith were protective in nature.

The word Neith, which initially meant “she is the terrifying one“, was an early ancient Egyptian deity. She was said to be the first and the prime creator, who created the universe and all it contains, and that she governed how it functions. She was the goddess of the cosmos, fate, wisdom, water, rivers, mothers, childbirth, hunting, weaving, and war. (1)

Neith was the tutelary deity of Sais, where her cult was centred in the western Nile Delta of Lower Egypt. It is attested as early as the First Dynasty.

symbolism

Neith is a far more complex goddess than is generally known, and ancient texts only hint at her true nature. A religious silence was imposed by ancient Egyptians for secrecy, employing euphemisms and allusions and often relying on symbols alone. In her usual representations, she is portrayed as a fierce deity, a woman wearing the Red Crown, occasionally holding or using the bow and arrow, in others, a harpoon. Neith also is a goddess of war and hunting, and that is the symbolism depicted most often. Her symbol was two arrows crossed over a shield. (1)

	Double arrow symbol of goddess Neith as per the dictionary of Wallis Budge (3)	double arrow symbol as per Indus seal inscription.
	Double bow symbol –Wallis Budge. (3)	Double bow as per IVC symbols
		Double bow variants

Nirrti

During a discussion, Arwind Bhagwath (3) mentioned similarities between Neith and Nirrti, the Hindu goddess. Hence, I verified the characteristics of Nirrti and found that she was the Indian version of Neith. But there are drastic changes in the characters during the later Vedic period. Neith had been portrayed as a protective goddess in Egypt, whereas nirriti has been described as the goddess of disorder in Vedic times. It looks like that in the earlier period of IVC, she was benevolent, but in the later period after the arrival of later Vedic people, she had been demonized. It is a natural phenomenon; the earlier gods were generally demonized.

In Vedic literature, Nirrti is personifying death, decay and sorrows. The name nirṛti has the meaning of “absence of rta“, meaning ‘disorder‘, or ‘lawlessness’, specifically the guardian to the absence of divine or cosmic disorder. (3) This term was used in Vedic texts to indicate a realm of non-existence and absolute darkness, which threatened to consume those who failed in their duties to sacrifice and procreate. In nirṛti, there was no light, no food, and no children: none of the necessary elements of Vedic life and ritual. (3)

Nirrti is mentioned in the hymns of the Rigveda, primarily to seek protection from her. In one hymn (X.59), she is mentioned several times. After summing up her nature, this hymn also asks for her to depart from the sacrificial site. In the Taittiriya Brahmana (I.6.1.4), Nirrti is described as dark, dressed in dark clothes, and her sacrificial shares are dark husks. In the sacred Shatapatha Brahmana (X.1.2.9), she is associated with the southwest quarter as her region. But elsewhere in the same text (V.2.3.3.), she is mentioned as living in the kingdom of the dead. (3)

The seal inscription reading is as follows (read from right to left) Twelfth-day sacrifice for Goddess Neith (double bow) to counter the disease caused by arrows of Rudra. Astaka symbol generally indicates Ashtami (eighth day). However, then there is a contradiction here in this seal inscription. Number twelve marks the 12th-day sacrifice, but in the end, the Astaka symbol indicates the eighth-day sacrifice to Rudra. So the only logical explanation is the Astaka symbol means the god Rudra here, not the eighth day of the calendar month. (4) The twelfth day indicates the calendar day of goddess Neith. The double bow symbol suggests the idea of ‘protection’. Therefore, the double bow means the protection of Neith against the arrows of Rudra.

Figure : The picture of Neith shows double bows tied with arrows – this symbol is on the head of the goddess. (1)

The hieroglyphs of her name usually are followed by a determinative containing the archery elements, with the shield symbol of the name being explained as double bows (facing one another), intersected by two arrows (usually lashed to the bows). Her symbol also identified the city of Sais. (5) This symbol was displayed on top of her head in Egyptian art. In her form as a goddess of war, she was said to make warriors’ weapons and guard their bodies when they died.

Figure : The mummy cloth is also one of the symbols of Neith.

Mummy cloth is also one of the symbols of Neith. (1) Refer to my article swathe a mummy ritual for more information about the above-given seal. (6)

Figure :Stela of Mer-Neith- Female Pharoah.

The above-given stela shows the name of the female Pharoah ‘Mer-Neith’, who lived around 2950 BC during the first dynasty. Her name consists of Hoe (Mer) and the symbol of Neith, two arrows placed in a cross position on a pole tied together with a fancy rope (symbol of goddess Neith). (7) Together, these two logos give the name of the female Pharoah can be read as ‘Mer-Neith’. What is the relevance of producing the picture of stela here? A similar symbol appears in the Indus seal inscription. Details are as given below.

In the above-given seal inscription, the crossed bows on a pole could be indicating goddess Neith. But, Rekha Rao, in her book ‘symbalography’ states that this symbol shows the offerings made to God Rudra, which is usually tied to a pole. (8) I verified the point raised by Rekha Rao, but no religious literature mentions that the sacrificial offering to Rudra is tied to a pole. Generally, the god’s portion of the offering is burnt in the Yajna fire itself. However, this point needs further verification.

The above-given picture shows a crossed arrows standard of goddess Neith in a wooden boat, pre-dynastic period. (9) Neith is one of the most ancient deities associated with ancient Egyptian culture. Flinders Petrie (Diopolis Parva, 1901) noted the earliest depictions of her standards were known in predynastic periods. (10) (11) It can be seen from a representation of the barque bearing her crossed arrow standards in the Predynastic Period, as is displayed in the Ashmolean Museum, Oxford. (1)

An analysis of her attributes shows Neith was a goddess with many roles. From predynastic and early dynasty periods, she was referred to as an “Opener of the Ways”, which may have referred to her leadership in hunting and war and as a psychopomp in cosmic and underworld pathways escorting souls. References to Neith as the “Opener of Paths” occurs in Dynasty Four through Dynasty Six, and Neith is seen in the titles of women serving as priestesses of the goddess. (el-Sayed, I: 67-69). El-Sayed asserts that Neith should be seen as a parallel to Anubis, the ancient jackal-god of Upper Egypt. Who was associated in that southern region with royalty in victory and as a psychopomp for the dead. (1)

Georges St. Clair (Creation Records, 1898) noted that Neith was represented at times as a cow goddess with a line of stars across her back (as opposed to representations of Nut with stars across the belly) [See el-Sayed, II, Doc. 644]. The symbol indicated that Neith represents the full ecliptic circle around the sky (above and below). (12)

This symbol is seen as the sky encapsulated by the heavenly vault above and the cosmos below the horizon. St. Clair maintained that the universal sky is the realm personified by Neith. She was the whole sky encompassing the upper and lower sky and the cosmos beyond the horizon. (12)

The above-given Indus seal also shows a similar idea to that of Egypt. The two chevron symbols indicate the two heavenly vaults, the sky above and the horizon below the earth, which could not be seen. The two strokes symbols below the vaults do the function of determinative action as in Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Figure: Neith shooting arrows at evil spirits attacking the deceased.
Reference: Ramadan El-Sayed, Neith, II, Doc. 346,434 and 679a (9) (14)

Neith also was the goddess of war; she thus had an additional association with death. The above-given illustration shows, she shoots arrows at the enemies of the dead. Therefore, she was viewed as a protector of the deceased. (14)

Figure : Winged goddess. Neith as a winged serpent, 18th dynasty – picture courtesy Flicker.com -Heidi Kontkanen.

Neith also appears as a uraeus snake to drive off intruders and those who would harm the deceased. She is represented in this snake form in the tomb of Tutankhamun.

Figure 5: Indus seal acknowledgement -Sue Sullivan.

The above-given Indus seal shows the snake along with a double bow symbol. The snake here could indicate the goddess Neith, which is similar to the concept of Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Data analysis of Neith symbols

symbols	frequency	remarks
	49	A single arrow may be indicating God Rudra. Arrows of Rudra cause disease and death.
	26	This arrow is different; it could be a sky vault symbol (chevron) with a determinative sign that indicates goddess Neith
	13	This symbol could be a modified form of double bow symbol
	53	Earlier, I have said that it could be a double Kedaga (shield) symbol. Now, after considering the double bow symbol, there is a second possibility that it could be the symbol of Neith.

The above-given data is obtained from the research papers of Mahadevan and Sundar et al. (15) (16). However, the above-given data of individual occurrence of the symbols does not give much information. Therefore, let us consider the data of paired symbols. The data of paired symbols are as provided in the below-presented table.

Symbol pair	frequency	remarks
	19	This combination of Astaka-arrow symbols pair occurs nineteen times. Astaka is the eighth-day sacrifice, which is generally associated with the god Rudra.
	10	Sky double vault symbol could be indicating Neith. Two strokes below the chevron symbols are the determinative symbols as in Egyptian hieroglyphics.

Acknowledgements:

1.Arvind Bhagwath for suggestions on goddess Nirrti. (3)

2.Indus seals picture courtesy -Sue Sullivan (13)

1. Wikipedia(Neith). Neith. Wikipedia.org/wiki/Neith. [Online] 2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neith.

2. Rao, Rekha. Vratyas indus seals-ii. Indiafacts.org. [Online] http://indiafacts.org/vratyas-indus-seals-ii/.

3. Budge, Wallis. Egyptian Hieroglyphic Dictionary. London : John Murray, 1920.

4. Bhagwath, Arvind. Independent.academia.edu/ArvindBhagwath. Academia.edu. [Online] https://independent.academia.edu/ArvindBhagwath.

5. Wikipedia(Nirrti). Nirrti(goddess). Wikipedia.org. [Online] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nir%E1%B9%9Bti_(goddess).

6. Jeyakumar(Indus-gods-calendar). Indus_script_Numerals_represent_various_gods_as_per_calendar_days. Academia.edu. [Online] https://www.academia.edu/31708667/Indus_script_Numerals_represent_various_gods_as_per_calendar_days.

7. Hart., George. Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. London. : Routledge. ., 1996.

8. Jeyakumar(swathe-mummy). Swathe a mummy ritual. Academia.edu. [Online] 2020. https://www.academia.edu/44011336/Swathe_a_mummy_ritual.

9. Wikipedia(Merneith). Merneith. Wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneith. [Online] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneith.

10. Rao, Rekha. Symbalography in Indus seals (e-Book). s.l. : Amazon, 2015.

11. http://www.oocities.org/skhmt_netjert/neith.html. Skhmt_netjert/neith. www.oocities.org. [Online] [Cited: ] http://www.oocities.org/skhmt_netjert/neith.html.

12. Petrie., Flinders. Flinders Petrie, Diopolis Parva, (London, 1901), Pl. XX, 11, as represented in Hollis, cited below. London. : Diopolis Parva., 1901.

13. Hollis., Susan Tower. “5 Egyptian Goddesses in the Third Millenium B.C.: Neith, Hathor, Nut, Isis, Nephthys,” . 1995.

14. Clair., George St. Creation Records. London. : s.n., 1898.

15. El-Sayed., Ramadan. La Déese Neith de Saïs: Importance et rayonnement de son cult. Cairo : IFAO, 1982.

16. Mahadevan.I. The Indus script -Text, Concordance and Tables. http://www.rmrl.in. [Online] http://www.rmrl.in/wp-content/uploads/2014/02/papers/5a.pdf.

17. Sundar. -The-Indus-Script-Text-and-Context.pdf. http://45.113.136.87/wp-content/uploads/. [Online] http://45.113.136.87/wp-content/uploads/43-The-Indus-Script-Text-and-Context.pdf.

18. Sullivan, Sue. The Indus script dictionary. s.l. : Suzanne Redalia (Publisher)., 2011.

Spike symbol indicates a ritual to control evil spirits

Vajra kila

Most of what is known of the Indian kīla lore has come by way of Tibetan culture. The term (vajra)kīlaya is frequently found in Sanskrit texts (as well as in virtually every kīlamantra) legitimately used as the verb ‘to spike,’ ‘transfix,’ ‘nail down,’ etc. (1)

Ritual usage

One of the principal methods of working with the vajra kila is to pierce the earth with it,  or as is common with Himalayan shamanic traditions, penetrate it vertically, point down into a basket, bowl or cache of rice.

The Kila is used as a ritual implement to signify stability on a prayer ground during ceremonies, and only those initiated in its use, or otherwise empowered, may wield it. The energy of the Kila is fierce, wrathful, piercing, affixing, transfixing. Therefore, the Kila is not a physical weapon but a spiritual implement and should be regarded as such. (2)

The above-given seal inscription shows a spike ritual was carried out at a ‘crossroads’ junction.

In the above-given seal inscription, the spike symbol is followed by the dangerous god’s symbol, which shows the magic nature of Vajra Kila. Kila was used to control the evil spirits and evil gods.

Bibliography

1. Boord, Martin. Cult of the Deity Vajrakila. Institute of Buddhist Studies. . 1993. ISBN 0-9515424-3-5..

2. Wikipedia(Phurba). Phurba. Wikipedia.org. [Online] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phurba.

X -symbol could be indicating ‘Varuna or Yama.’’

Abstract

The symbol-x could be associated with the death god Varuna or Yama. X- symbol could be indicating God ‘Pusan’ also. In addition, the x- symbol could have shown ‘cross roads’ where sacrifices were held for fearsome underworld deities. In addition to that, there is a possibility that it could have indicated Egyptian death god Osiris also.

Figure 1: God with -X- Yajna symbol.

Iravatham Mahadevan, in his research paper, states that this X-symbol could be indicating – ‘cross-roads symbol, thereby yielding a meaning of ‘city’. (1) The idea of ‘crossroad’ may be correct, but the meaning ascribed by Iravatham Mahadevan is a debatable one. For me, it looks like that; it indicates a sacrificial ritual carried out in a crossroad junction. But there is a possibility that this symbol could be hinting at a ‘crossroad’ thereby indicating God Pusan, as said by Iravatham Mahadevan. (1)

There is another possibility; the crossroad symbol could have indicated goddess ‘Hecate’ for whom the sacrifice was carried out in the crossroads. (2) However, the god associated with the ‘X’ symbol shown in the above-given seal seems to be a male god, exposing his groin area. Hence, the possibility of a female god is less.

The above-given seal shows X- symbol in association with the water symbol of the god Varuna. Varuna was the earliest Indian god to be associated with death, even before the Vedic people. Hence the possibility of Varuna being the death god of IVC people is a fair chance. There is a separate article, ‘Varuna was present in IVC’. (3) For more information, read this article.

There are two possible explanations for this x-symbol. The first possibility is that it could have meant god of death. The Second option is that Iravatham Mahadevan says that this symbol could be indicating a ‘crossroad’, thereby indicating the god Pusan. (1) This ‘crossroad’ symbol could have meant the psychopomp, the conductor of souls to the land of forefathers. He was called Pusan by Rig Vedic people. Discussion in this article has been entirely devoted to the idea of a death god here. The debate on the idea of Pusan has been given under a separate article ‘Hoof symbol indicates Vedic god Pusan(Pan).’ (3)

Picture courtesy -Thoughtco.com (5)

In the list of death gods, we also have to add ancient Egypt’s god of death, Osiris. See the x- symbol on the mummy shroud of Osiris; this x-symbol appears in many pictures of Egyptian mummies. Hence there is a link between the x-symbol and Osiris. It is already seen that many hieroglyphic symbols are appearing in the IVC script. For more information, read my article, ‘Indus symbols follow the Egyptian hieroglyphics way of writing and ideas’. (6) Hence there is a possibility, the x- symbol could have indicated the god Osiris in the IVC context also.

Symbols	solus	Initial	medial	final	total
	0	51	11	1	63
	2	5	65	20	92
	2	3	14	4	23
	1	1	0	13	15
	5	60	90	38	193

Table 1: Frequency distribution of X-symbols

The frequency analysis table available in the research paper of Sundar et al. gives the following details: (5)

The above-given frequency distribution analysis shows that the open-x symbol occurs 65 times in the middle portion of the inscription. In contrast, the closed-x signoccurs with a significant frequency of 51 times at the initial part of the inscription.

The authors of this analysis table, Sundar et al., have differentiated the x-symbol into four categories. (5) We should try to analyze the issue with the next level of investigation by studying the combination of symbols. Such an analysis will further clarify the matter in a better way.

Symbols	solus	initial	medial	final	total
	2	0	8	34	44
	1	37	6	0	44
	0	0	10	0	10
Total	3	37	24	34	98

Table 2: Frequency distribution of X- symbols with other symbol combinations.

The above-given table shows the frequency distribution pattern of signs combined with the x-symbol. Significant frequency tends towards combination. This combination occurs 37 times at the beginning of the sentence. The second significant combination is Combination, which happens 34 times at the end of the sentence.

– Meaning of this combination could be ‘Varuna/Yama-Yajna’, whereas,

The combination could mean ‘Varuna/Yama- Kavu’ (or) crossroad Kavu. That is a sacrifice at a public place.

There is a difference between these two symbols. The first one is having closed edges, whereas the second one has open edges. The first one may be indicating God Varuna/Yama, but the second one could be suggesting the sacrifice at a ‘crossroad‘ for the same god. The open ‘crossroads symbol occurs only at the end of the sentence along with the ‘Kavu’(sacrifice) symbol. That shows that the sacrifice was carried out at the crossroads.

This analysis shows that even though both symbols are looking very similar, they may have different meanings. But the general observation is that the above said combinations are only in 88 seal inscriptions. The vast majority of this x- symbol occurrence is either alone or in conjunction with some other symbol. The general conclusion is that the x- logo and its variations stand for ‘Yama’ or ‘Varuna’.

Table 3: X-symbol variants.

Symbols courtesy – Book of Asko Parpola (3)

The above-given table shows ten different variants of the x-symbol, all of which indicate the death god. There are many other variations of this x-symbol, but I have produced only ten frequently used ones. For additional variations of this symbol, refer to the book of Parpola. (3)

The above-given seal inscription shows the following triplet with a high frequency of 37, as per data of Sundar et al. (5)

This triplet reads as, ‘fear the thunderbolt of X-god’. (7) Read my article, ‘ The twisted bird symbol stands for the idea fear.’ The X – God here is Varuna because he only has the thunderbolt as his weapon, not Yama. Rig Veda verse 7.89 says thunderbolt is one of the weapons of Varuna. (8)

Figure 2: The x-symbol looks like a symbol of twins.

The above-given inscription shows that the x-symbol is not drawn in a simple cross fashion. This symbol is drawn as if indicating a ‘Twins ‘. If this symbol shows a ‘twin gods’, there are two possibilities; the first possibility is that it could be ‘Aswins’, and the second option is ‘Yama and Yami’. It is a known fact that Yama and Yami were born together as twins. In Sanskrit, his name can be interpreted to mean “twin” (4). Since all Indus inscriptions are correlated to death-related rituals, it is fair to conclude that the twins mentioned here may be indicating ‘Yama and Yami’.

Figure 3: Yama carries his twin sister Yami.

Picture courtesy – himalayanbuddhistart.wordpress.com (5)

See the above-given picture, here Yama is carrying his twin sister in his hip. This twin nature of Yama and Yami might have been reflected in the X-symbol.

Picture courtesy – Sue Sullivan (6)

The above-given seal shows ‘Yama and Yami’ in a better illustration. See the third symbol from the right. There are four legs and four hands to this god. It is usual for a Hindu god to have four hands, but four legs are an abnormality. That is a definitive indication that the God intended to be depicted is a ‘twin gods.’ There is no other twin god other than ‘Yama and Yami’. Further, this ’Yama-Yami’ symbol occurs next to the bangle symbol (Symbol. No two from right). This bangle symbol indicates the word ‘protection’. The sentence given in the seal inscription is that “protection against Yama –Yami Kavu”. The bangle symbol further confirms that the God meant here is an evil god, not a benevolent god. If God is Pusan, there is no need for pleading for protection against Pusan because he was a benevolent god. The evil nature of God confirms that the god indicated by the x-symbol is ‘Yama and Yami’.

Evolution of X – symbol

It is pertinent to note that there are evolutionary changes in the design of the x- symbol; in the beginning, the logo indicated a single god, but later, the X -character is modified to show the twin gods Yama and Yami.

See the X – god in the above-given seal, X – god is sitting alone on a throne. The x- symbol in the inscription confirms that the god shown in the seal is the death god. Whereas, in later day seals, the death god is shown as a twin.

The above-given symbol shows that the twin gods are sitting on a throne. The four-legged object across the waist area is the throne where the twin gods Yama and Yami are seated. Hence, there is an evolution in the X – symbol.

Crossroads in folklore

In folklore, crossroads may represent a location “between the worlds” and, as such, a site where supernatural spirits can be contacted, and paranormal events can occur. Symbolically, it can mean a locality where two realms touch and therefore represents liminality, a place literally “neither here nor there”.

In Greek mythology, crossroads were associated with both Hermes and Hecate, with shrines and ceremonies for both taking place there. ‘Suppers of Hecate’ were left for her at crossroads at each new moon, and one of her most common titles was ‘goddess of the crossroads.’

In the UK, there was a tradition of burying criminals and suicide victims at crossroads. This kind of burial might have been practised because the crossings were the boundaries of the villages or towns. In addition to that, it was a desire to bury those outsides of the law outside the territory. There is another possible idea that the many roads would confuse the dead.

In Western folk mythology, a crossroads can be used to summon a demon or devil to make a deal. This legend can be seen in many stories.

In the 1885 historical essay Transylvanian Superstitions, Emily Gerard describes how crossroads were often avoided as a matter of course and describes a Romanian belief that a demon could be summoned at an intersection by drawing a magic circle, offering copper coin as payment, and reciting an incantation. (14)

Figure 4: Star constellations map is showing the X-god carrying the mountain.

Iravatham Mahadevan states that the ‘X’ symbol may be indicating sky-god. (12) There is a possibility that all gods lived in heaven, including the death god ‘(X)’. But the death god’s position was in the southern hemisphere of the sky, and other gods were in the northern hemisphere of heaven. Hence, it gives a feeling that as if the death god lived in an underworld.

Another example shows that the Hindu gods’ mythologies and iconographies are based on star constellations. Notably, the star constellation Sagittarius along with the Scorpio constellation fits this criterion. The Sagittarius looks like a ten-headed monster resembling the ten heads of Ravana. The Scorpion constellation is the three-headed dog Cerberus, who was watching over the entrance to the underworld. Ophiuchus constellation is the mountain carried by X-god, whereas the Hercules constellation looks like the God Shiva sitting on the hill.

Further, the entry of the Sun in these stars constellations indicated the beginning of the winter season. This beginning of winter coincides with the arrival of Persephone in hell. That mythological story also corresponds with this description. Considering all these factors, the god of death could have lived in the sky, not necessarily in the underworld.

Maha Kala

Mahakala (Sanskrit) is a protector deity known as a Dharmapala in Vajrayana Buddhism, particularly in most Tibetan traditions. In Hinduism, Mahakala is the name of Shiva at the temple in Ujjain, which Kalidasa frequently mentions. Mahakala is also one of Shiva’s principal attendants (Sanskrit: gaṇa), along with Nandi, Shiva’s mount. (11) The conclusion is that all related death gods Yama/Kalan/Maha-kala/ Varuna/ Ravana express the same idea.

Figure 5: Ravana is shaking the mountain Kailash.

Picture courtesy – (Wikipedia(Ravananugraha), 2016)

Ravana shaking the mountain Kailash

The above-given symbol gives an idea that X-God is shaking the mountain. Most probably, the concept is similar to Ravana shaking mountain Kailash (12). Ravananugraha (“showing favour to Ravana”) is a benevolent aspect of the Hindu god Shiva, depicted seated on his abode Mount Kailash with his consort Parvati. At the same time, the rakshasa king (demon-king) Ravana of Lanka tries to shake it. The depiction is labelled variously as Ravana Lifting Mount Kailash or Ravana Shaking Mount Kailash. According to Hindu scriptures, Ravana once tried to lift Mount Kailash, but Shiva pushed the mountain into place and trapped Ravana beneath it. The imprisoned Ravana sang hymns to praise Shiva for a thousand years. Shiva finally blessed him and granted him a mighty sword or a magnificent lingam (Shiva’s an iconic symbol) to worship (12).

Yama was initially a sky god but was pushed down into Underworld:

Hindus believe that ‘Yama’ is the ruler of the underworld. There is a possibility that Yama was initially one of the gods in the sky, but in later times, after the arrival of Shiva, he was pushed down into the underworld.

Figure 6: Inscription Indicates that X-god carries the mountain.

In the above-given seal, the x-God carries a mountain. God Hanuman performed such an act of lifting the mountain, but he was a later God. There is less chance that the idea of Hanuman was present during the IVC period. X-symbol could likely be indicating Ravana, who has many characteristics of Yama. The assumption is that God Yama exists as Ravana in a modified form.

Comparison of the Greek mythology with Indian gods

According to Iliad (xv.187–93), Hades and his two brothers, Poseidon and Zeus, drew lots for realms to rule. Zeus received the sky, Poseidon received the seas, and Hades received the underworld, dead souls’ domain. Some myths suggest that Hades was dissatisfied with his turnout but had no choice and moved to his new realm. The Underworld was Hades’ eternal domain, meaning he would spend most of his time there (15).

There is a story Hades was tricked into Underworld by Zeus, which resulted in animosity between the two. Anyhow, the story indicates that Hades was equally mighty like Zeus. The similarity that can be noted here is that Hades and Ravana have some resemblance.

Acknowledgements:

1. The Indus seal pictures are taken from the book of sue Sullivan (6)
2. The frequency data is extracted from the research work of Mahadevan and Sundar et al. (17) (5)

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